COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT The EU Environmental Implementation Review Country Report - CYPRUS Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions The EU Environmental Implementation Review: Common Challenges and how to combine efforts to deliver better results
Inhoudsopgave van deze pagina:
Council of the European Union
Brussels, 6 February 2017 (OR. en)
5967/17 ADD 5
ENV 103 ECOFIN 70 SOC 68 COMPET 74 POLGEN 9 CONSOM 37
COVER NOTE
From: Secretary-General of the European Commission, signed by Mr Jordi AYET PUIGARNAU, Director
date of receipt: 6 February 2017
To: Mr Jeppe TRANHOLM-MIKKELSEN, Secretary-General of the Council of the European Union
No. Cion doc.: SWD(2017) 36 final
Subject: COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT
The EU Environmental Implementation Review
Country Report - CYPRUS
Accompanying the document
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions
The EU Environmental Implementation Review: Common Challenges and
how to combine efforts to deliver better results
Delegations will find attached document SWD(2017) 36 final.
Encl.: SWD(2017) 36 final
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
Brussels, 3.2.2017 SWD(2017) 36 final
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT
The EU Environmental Implementation Review
Country Report - CYPRUS
Accompanying the document
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions
The EU Environmental Implementation Review: Common Challenges and how to
combine efforts to deliver better results
{COM(2017) 63 final i} {SWD(2017) 33 - 35 final} {SWD(2017) 37 - 60 final}
Cyprus 2
This report has been written by the staff of the Directorate-General for Environment, European
Commission. Any comments are welcome to the following e-mail address: ENV-EIR@ec.europa.eu
More information on the European Union is available on the internet (http://europa.eu).
Photographs: p.9 – ©LIFE99 TCY/CY/041; p.12 – ©letty17/iStock; p.14 – © letty17/iStock p.19 – ©Kirill Makarov/iStock; p.23 – ©efesenko/iStock
For reproduction or use of these photos, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holder.
©European Union, 2017
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
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Table of Content
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................... 4
PART I: THEMATIC AREAS ............................................................................................................................... 6
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1.TURNING THE EU INTO A CIRCULAR, RESOURCE-EFFICIENT, GREEN AND COMPETITIVE LOW-
CARBON ECONOMY............................................................................................................................... 6
Developing a circular economy and improving resource efficiency ..................................................... 6
Waste management .............................................................................................................................. 7
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2.PROTECTING, CONSERVING AND ENHANCING NATURAL CAPITAL ..................................................... 10
Nature and Biodiversity....................................................................................................................... 10
Green Infrastructure ........................................................................................................................... 12
Soil protection ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Marine protection ............................................................................................................................... 13
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3.ENSURING CITIZENS' HEALTH AND QUALITY OF LIFE .......................................................................... 15
Air quality ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Noise ................................................................................................................................................. 16
Water quality and management ......................................................................................................... 16
Enhancing the sustainability of cities .................................................................................................. 18
International agreements ................................................................................................................... 19
PART II: ENABLING FRAMEWORK: IMPLEMENTATION TOOLS ..................................................................... 20
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4.MARKET BASED INSTRUMENTS AND INVESTMENT ............................................................................ 20
Green taxation and environmentally harmful subsidies ..................................................................... 20
Green Public Procurement .................................................................................................................. 20
Investments: the contribution of EU funds ......................................................................................... 21
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5.EFFECTIVE GOVERNANCE AND KNOWLEDGE ...................................................................................... 23
Effective governance within central, regional and local government................................................. 23
Compliance assurance ......................................................................................................................... 24
Public participation and access to justice ........................................................................................... 25
Access to information, knowledge and evidence ................................................................................ 26
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Executive summary
About the Environmental Implementation Review for Cyprus. Poor waste management performance, with
In May 2016, the Commission launched the high waste generation, low recycling rates and strong Environmental Implementation Review (EIR), a two-year dependence on landfilling, including in illegal facilities, is cycle of analysis, dialogue and collaboration to improve one of the main concerns. Improving water management the implementation of existing EU environmental policy and putting in place a water pricing policy in accordance and legislation 1 . As a first step, the Commission drafted with the Water Framework Directive covering a broad 28 reports describing the main challenges and range of water services is of great significance for Cyprus, opportunities on environmental implementation for each with over-abstraction of groundwater and water scarcity Member State. These reports are meant to stimulate a being major challenges. Its rich natural environment and positive debate both on shared environmental challenges biodiversity is one of the country's strongest assets. for the EU, as well as on the most effective ways to However, in many cases of infrastructure development in address the key implementation gaps. The reports rely on protected areas it can be observed that the necessary the detailed sectoral implementation reports collected or assessments as foreseen by European and national issued by the Commission under specific environmental legislation are not carried out appropriately. This legislation as well as the 2015 State of the Environment weakens legal certainty, slows down projects and can Report and other reports by the European Environment lead to significant environmental damage, such as Agency. These reports will not replace the specific fragmentation or degradation of these areas and instruments to ensure compliance with the EU legal significant endangerment of protected species. Finally,
obligations. one of the most persistent problems is that of the widespread practice of illegal trapping of wild birds,
The reports will broadly follow the outline of the 7th especially migratory.
Environmental Action Programme 2 and refer to the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable development and related Main Challenges
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 3 to the extent to The three main challenges with regard to
which they reflect the existing obligations and policy implementation of EU environmental policy and law in
objectives of EU environmental law 4 . Cyprus are:
The main challenges have been selected by taking into Better protecting Natura 2000 areas from account factors such as the importance or the gravity of incompatible activities or developments that the environmental implementation issue in the light of fragment or degrade them, by ensuring that all the impact on the quality of life of the citizens, the necessary assessments are carried out properly distance to target, and financial implications. before the approval of a project, and that the
The reports accompany the Communication "The EU necessary mitigation measures are formally Environmental Implementation Review 2016: Common approved and properly applied. Enhancing policies challenges and how to combine efforts to deliver better and enforcement actions to eliminate illegal bird results", which identifies challenges that are common to trapping. several Member States, provides preliminary conclusions Eliminating illegal landfilling of waste and putting in on possible root causes of implementation gaps and place the necessary infrastructure for waste proposes joint actions to deliver better results. It also management, while paying particular attention to groups in its Annex the actions proposed in each country avoiding creating over-capacity of installations for
report to improve implementation at national level. the treatment of residual waste. Improving water management in order to effectively
General profile tackle problems such as water scarcity and over
Environmental implementation represents a challenge abstraction.
Main Opportunities
1 Communication "Delivering the benefits of EU environmental policies
through a regular Environmental Implementation Review" Cyprus could perform better on topics where there is
( COM/2016/ 316 final ). already a good knowledge base and good practices. This
2 Decision No. 1386/2013/EU of 20 November 2013 on a General Union applies in particular to:
Environmental Action Programme to 2020 " Living well, within the
limits of our planet ". Move away from landfilling by focusing policies and
3 United Nations, 2015. The Sustainable Development Goals investments on the implementation of the separate
4 This EIR report does not cover climate change, chemicals and energy.
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collection obligation to increase recycling rates, particularly by making more efficient use of economic instruments.
Safeguard the country's natural capital, especially under the Natura 2000 network, and promote green tourism, which can bring about significant economic benefits.
Enhance investments in eco-innovation, aligning promoted activities to the country's environmental needs (e.g. water scarcity, improving recycling) and to its natural capital (e.g. potential for development of renewable energy).
Points of Excellence
Where Cyprus is a leader on environmental implementation, innovative approaches could be shared more widely with other countries. Good examples are:
According to the EEA Report 'European Bathing
Water quality in 2015', out of 113 bathing waters in Cyprus 99.1% were of excellent quality.
The Natura 2000 network in Cyprus covers 28.8% of the land area, which is one of the highest percentages in the EU (EU average 18.1%), with Birds Directive SPAs covering 26.7% (EU average 12.3%).
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Part I: Thematic Areas
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1.Turning the EU into a circular, resource-efficient, green and
competitive low-carbon economy
Developing a circular economy and improving Figure 1: Resource productivity 2003-15 7
resource efficiency
The 2015 Circular Economy Package emphasizes the need to move towards a lifecycle-driven ‘circular’ economy, with a cascading use of resources and residual waste that is close to zero. This can be facilitated by the development of, and access to, innovative financial instruments and funding for eco-innovation.
SDG 8 invites countries to promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. SDG 9 highlights the need to build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation. SDG 12 encourages countries to achieve the
sustainable management and efficient use of natural SMEs and resource efficiency
resources by 2030. There is significant room for improvement; especially in
Measures towards a circular economy crucial areas such as entrepreneurship and ‘responsive
Transforming our economies from linear to circular offers administration’. Steps to this direction have already been an opportunity to reinvent them and make them more taken under the National Policy Statement on the sustainable and competitive. This will stimulate Enhancement of the Entrepreneurial Ecosystem, investments and bring both short and long-term benefits approved by the Council of Ministers in December 2015
for the economy, environment and citizens alike 5 . and currently under implementation. Further measures promoting waste management and renewable energy
Cyprus is performing below EU average in terms of use for SMEs are urgently needed. The Flash 426 resource productivity 6 (how efficiently the economy uses Eurobarometer "SMEs, resource efficiency and green material resources to produce wealth), with 1.85 EUR /kg markets" defines "green job" as a job that directly deals (EU average is 2 EUR/kg) in 2015. Figure 1, however, with information, technologies, or materials that shows a significant increase of resource productivity preserves or restores environmental quality. It shows since 2011, having almost reached EU average in 2015. that 35% of the SMEs in Cyprus have one or more full
There is no overarching policy framework for the Circular time employee working in a green job at least some of
Economy in Cyprus. Policy and funding measures and the time. Cyprus has an average number of 1.4 full time mechanisms promoting circular economy still largely green employees per SME.
depend on co-financing through the European Structural Eco-Innovation
and Investment Funds (ESIF). Despite significant improvement, Cyprus continues to
The ESIF for the period 2014-2020 are funding research perform poorly in eco-innovation. The country scored 60 activities, including the Energy, Environment and Water in 2015 compared to a score of 44 in the 2013 Research Centre (EEWRC), which carries out research in assessment (EU average = 100) as shown in Figure 2. This the areas of Solar Energy and Desalination, Climate places the country third from the bottom in the EU28 Change and Impact, Environmental Research and eco-innovation ranking. Cyprus promotes eco-innovation Monitoring, Water Research and Management and through measures promoting entrepreneurial innovation Sustainability and Built Environment. in general. The measures promoting innovation are
common due to their interrelation, the available
5 European Commission, 2015. Proposed Circular Economy Package
6 Resource productivity is defined as the ratio between gross domestic
Cyprus 7
synergies and above all due to Cyprus' small size, which turns biodegradable waste into either high quality does not allow for the development and running of many compost or Solid Recovered Fuel); advanced glasshouses specialized support schemes. The entrepreneurial for producing exotic flowers; organic and energy efficient support scheme (developing innovative products and production of wine and olive oil etc. services) has subsidized six eco innovation projects (two
on inclusive growth, one on reuse of waste materials and The present economic climate does not encourage
three on reducing waste). investments in eco-innovation. Public spending for R&D has been put on hold, while traditionally business
Eco-innovation in Cyprus is dominated by individual spending for R&D in Cyprus is anyway low. However, the actors – research institutes or enterprises. As such, there financial situation is expected to improve following the are no distinct and fully developed eco-innovation exit of the country from the austerity plan in March 2016.
sectors. Cyprus has 76 EMAS registered organisations, which
A number of EU funded research and innovation projects represents 1.8% of all registered organisations. Cyprus in the field of eco-innovation are currently under has increased its number of registrations, particularly implementation. In particular, the LIFE+ instrument during the period between 2009 and 2012 by more than supported a total of 11 projects, which cover issues such tripling its numbers, while in 2015 the Department of as waste management, industrial waste, water Environment was also included in the EMAS register management at the scale of the river basin, air quality, following the verification of its environmental climate change and industry-production. management system.
Figure 2: Eco-Innovation Index 2015 (EU=100) 8 Suggested action
• Enhance investments in eco-innovation, aligning promoted activities to the country's environmental needs (e.g. water scarcity, improving recycling) and to its natural capital (e.g. potential for development of renewable energy).
Waste management
Turning waste into a resource requires: − Full implementation of Union waste legislation, which includes the waste hierarchy; the need to ensure separate collection of waste; the landfill diversion targets etc. − Reducing per capita waste generation and waste generation in absolute terms. − Limiting energy recovery to non-recyclable materials and phasing out landfilling of recyclable or recoverable waste. SDG 12 invites countries to substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse, by 2030.SDG 12 invites countries to substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse, by 2030.
The EU's approach to waste management is based on the
Given the country’s rich natural capital, new "waste hierarchy" which sets out an order of priority developments in renewable energies could promote ecowhen shaping waste policy and managing waste at the innovation activities. The agricultural and food industries operational level: prevention, (preparing for) reuse, can also contribute to eco-innovative solutions: waste recycling, recovery and, as the least preferred option, treatment in olive oil production; compost produced disposal (which includes landfilling and incineration from recycled plants (such as lawn, garden clippings, tree without energy recovery). The progress towards reaching
leaves, vine leaves etc.); biological waste treatment (that recycling targets and the adoption of adequate WMP/WPP 9 should be the key items to measure the
Cyprus 8
performance of Member States. This section focuses on
management of municipal waste 10 , for which EU law sets
mandatory recycling targets.
In Cyprus, although municipal waste generation has Figure 4: Recycling rate of municipal waste 2007-14
13
decreased over the years, it still remains significantly higher than the EU average (617 kg/y/inhabitant compared to around 475 kg on average in 2014) as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 depicts the municipal waste treatment in Cyprus in terms of kg per capita, which shows a decrease in landfilling and an increase of recycling and composting.
Figure 3: Municipal waste by treatment in Cyprus 2007-
14 11
There is scope to step up efforts to develop separate collection at source, combined with the required facilities to ensure a high level of recycling/composting. A reduction of landfilling can be observed; however, this is happening at a very slow pace. Two illegal landfills remain operational in the territory. The 2010 target for the diversion of biodegradable municipal waste from landfills was not met and the minimum quantity allowed to be disposed was exceeded by 64%. In light of the ongoing review of the landfill restrictions for municipal waste, additional significant efforts will have to be undertaken in order to limit landfilling only to residual
waste by 2030 (max. 10%) 14 .
Cyprus landfills the majority of its municipal waste (80%,
compared to the EU-average of 28%). Recycling accounts There are no landfill taxes in place in Cyprus. Limited for 19%, including 4% of composting, which is producer responsibility (EPR) (few waste streams
significantly below the EU average (44%). covered) or equivalent systems are in place and those are not able to cover the full costs of separate collection and
Figure 4 shows that Cyprus must strongly invest in recycling of the main waste streams. There are no recycling in the coming years in order to reach the 2020 incentive systems to favour prevention and participation
recycling target 12 . in separate collection and very limited incentives have
been provided so far for local authorities to develop separate collection systems. The use of EU funds could be more focused on activities higher up the waste hierarchy and avoid creating installations with more capacity than necessary for the treatment of residual waste. As soon as separate collections are in place, Pay-As-You-Throw (PAYT) schemes could be encouraged and generalised at
10 Municipal waste consists of waste collected by or on behalf of local level. One PAYT pilot currently runs in one of the
municipal authorities, or directly by the private sector (business or municipalities and has so far had encouraging results.
private non-profit institutions) not on behalf of municipalities.
11 Eurostat, Municipal waste and treatment, by type of treatment Cyprus has been taking steps in the right direction in
method, accessed October 2016 2015, by improving separate collection and recycling
12 Member States may choose a different method than the one used by
ESTAT (and referred to in this report) to calculate their recycling rates and track compliance with the 2020 target of 50% recycling of 13 Eurostat, Recycling rate of municipal waste , accessed October 2016 municipal waste. 14 European Commission, (COM(2015)595 i, 594 i)
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rates. However, managing waste efficiently and fulfilling waste. Use the revenues to support the separate the obligations from the EU Directives on waste remains collection and alternative infrastructure in conjunction a challenge. The updated national Waste Management with a better allocation of the cohesion policy funds to Plan (for municipal waste only) and the Waste Prevention the first steps of waste hierarchy. Avoid building Programme were approved by the Council of Ministers in excessive infrastructure for the treatment of residual November 2015 - their absence had resulted in the selfwaste. suspension of EU funds for the 2014-2020 programming • Focus on implementation of the separate collection period. However, other waste streams are still not obligation to increase recycling rates, particularly by covered by a national Waste Management Plan and this making more efficient use of economic instruments is expected to happen by the end of 2016. (such as PAYT schemes).
In order to help bridge the implementation gap in Cyprus, • Extend and improve the cost-effectiveness, monitoring the Commission has delivered a roadmap for and transparency of existing EPR schemes.
compliance 15 .
Preventing and reducing waste generation together with the necessary increase in reuse and recycling could improve the resource efficiency of the Cypriot economy, increase business opportunities and provide jobs in the recycling sector. Full implementation of the existing legislation could create more than 2.000 jobs in Cyprus and increase the annual turnover of the waste sector by over EUR 200 million. Moving towards the targets of the
Roadmap on Resource Efficiency which outlines how we can transform Europe's economy into a sustainable one by 2050, could create over 2.400 additional jobs and increase the annual turnover of the waste sector by over
EUR 250 million. 16
Suggested action
• Finalise the work on removing the two remaining illegal landfills.
• Introduce and gradually increase landfill taxes to phase-out landfilling of recyclable and recoverable
15 Support to Implementation – The Commission helps 8 Member States
to improve their municipal waste management . Country factsheet for Cyprus
16 Bio Intelligence service, 2011. Implementing EU Waste legislation for
Green Growth , study for European Commission. The breakdown per country on job creation was made by the consultant on Commission demand but was not included in the published document.
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2.Protecting, conserving and enhancing natural capital
Nature and Biodiversity biogeographical seminar for the Mediterranean region
The EU Biodiversity Strategy aims to halt the loss of the Cypriot Natura 2000 network still presents significant insufficiencies at sea, especially in the offshore marine
biodiversity in the EU by 2020, restore ecosystems and areas, both for SCIs and SPAs 18 (see Figure 5 19 .).
their services in so far as feasible, and step up efforts to
avert global biodiversity loss. The EU Birds and Habitats Figure 5: Sufficiency assessment of SCI networks in
Directives aim at achieving favourable conservation Cyprus based on the situation until December 2013
status of protected species and habitats. (%) 20
SDG 14 requires countries to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources, while SDG 15 requires countries to protect, restore and promote the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
The 1992 EU Habitats Directive and the 1979 Birds
Directive are the cornerstone of the European legislation aimed at the conservation of the EU's wildlife. Natura
2000, the largest coordinated network of protected areas in the world, is the key instrument to achieve and implement the Directives' objectives to ensure the longterm protection, conservation and survival of Europe's most valuable and threatened species and habitats and the ecosystems they underpin.
The adequate designation of protected sites as Special
Ares of Conservation (SAC) under the Habitats Directive and as Special Protection Areas (SPA) under the Birds
Directive is a key milestone towards meeting the For 36 SCIs the 6-year deadline laid down by the Habitats objectives of the Directives. The results of Habitats Directive for designating these as Special Areas of Directive Article 17 and Birds Directive Article 12 reports Conservation (SACs) and establishing appropriate and the progress towards adequate Sites of Community conservation objectives and measures expired in early
Importance (SCI)-SPA and SAC designation 17 both in land 2016. However, only 3 SCIs have been designated as SACs
and at sea, should be the key items to measure the so far, based on the last Art. 17 Habitats Directive report performance of Member States. of Cyprus. Information provided by the member state An area of 28.8% of the national land of Cyprus (area suggest that there are now 40 SCIs and according to the under government control) is designated as Natura 2000 provision of Article 6 of the Habitats Directive there are (EU average 18.1%), where designation under the Birds 26 designated SACs so far, and 4 SAC areas for which a Directive SPAs covers 26.7% (EU average 12.3%) and Ministerial Decree included the necessary conservation designation under the Habitats Directive SCIs covers measures. 13.49% (EU average 13.8%). Cyprus has designated so far Management plans have been drawn up for most of the
63 Natura 2000 sites, including 40 SCIs and 30 SPAs.
There are 7 Natura 2000 sites designated for both
Habitats and Birds Directives covering the same area. 18 For each Member State, the Commission assesses whether the species and habitat types on Annexes I and II of the Habitats
Directive, are sufficiently represented by the sites designated to date.
The terrestrial part of the Natura 2000 network can be This is expressed as a percentage of species and habitats for which
considered almost complete. However, despite its large further areas need to be designated in order to complete the network in that country. The current data , which were assessed in
coverage on land, according to the conclusions of the 2014-2015, reflect the situation up until December 2013.
19 The percentages in Figure 5 refer to percentages of the total number of assessments (one assessment covering 1 species or 1 habitat in a
17 Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) are designated pursuant to the given biographical region with the Member State); if a habitat type or
Habitats Directive whereas Special Areas of Protection (SPAs) are a species occurs in more than 1 Biogeographic region within a given designated pursuant to the Birds Directive; figures of coverage do not Member State, there will be as many individual assessments as there add up due to the fact that some SCIs and SPAs overlap. Special Areas are Biogeographic regions with an occurrence of that species or of Conservation (SACs) means a SCI designated by the Member habitat in this Member State.
States. 20 European Commission, internal assessment.
Cyprus 11
SCI/SAC areas and are underway for the SPAs which are Figure 6: Conservation status of habitats and species in
to be finalized by the end of 2016. Consequently Cyprus in 2007/2013 (%) 24
Ministerial Decrees have been adopted for enacting management plans including ministerial decrees for 4
SAC areas, as well as a horizontal ministerial decree for all areas thus including measures and actions regarding the protection of the areas and the integration with the
Common Agricultural Policy (Rural Development Plan
2014-2020) as well as integration through measures that
have been considered for the 2 nd River Basin
Management Plan (Water Framework Directive).
A major challenge to the effective management of the
Natura 2000 areas is their protection from incompatible activities or developments that fragment or degrade them, especially within private land. Regarding the development of projects and plans affecting Natura 2000 sites there is a recurrent issue caused by the lack of a sound procedure for applying the Appropriate
Assessments under Art. 6 of the Habitats Directive, which is reflected in several complaints and infringement cases
(where no or inadequate assessments have been carried out).
The sound management of areas is also undermined by the lack of understanding and acceptance of nature sites
by several local communities and land-owners. This is As shown in Figure 7, according to the official report
important because a significant part of designated Natura under Article 12 of the Birds Directive 25 , 74% of the
2000 areas (mainly agricultural land) in Cyprus is private breeding species and wintering species showed shortland. term increasing or stable population trends.
Another important challenge for implementing nature Figure 7: Short-term population trend of breeding and
legislation is the persisting problem of illegal trapping of wintering bird species in Cyprus in 2012 (%) 26
wild birds, especially migratory birds, with the use of nets, lime-sticks and sound producing devices. Although progress has been made in comparison to 10 years ago, the trapping numbers still remain at unacceptably high levels at over one million a year. Illegal consumption in restaurants also remains an issue.
According to the latest report on the conservation status of habitats and species covered by the Habitats
Directive 21 , 98% of the habitats' biogeographic
assessments were favourable in 2013 (EU 27: 16 %).
Furthermore, 0% are considered to be unfavourable–
inadequate 22 (EU27: 47%) and 2% are unfavourable – bad
(EU27: 30%). As for the species, 69% of the assessments were favourable in 2013 (EU 27: 23%) 13% at by the 2007 reporting cycle, that the ‘unknown’ assessments have unfavourable-inadequate (EU27: 42%) and 2% strongly diminished particularly for species, and that some reported
unfavourable-bad status (EU27: 18%). This is depicted in changes are not genuine as they result from improved data /
Figure 6 23 . monitoring methods. 24 These figures show the percentage of biogeographical assessments in
each category of conservation status for habitats and species (one assessment covering 1 species or 1 habitat in a given biographical
21 The core of the ‘Article 17’ report is the assessment of conservation region with the Member State), respectively. The information is status of the habitats and species targeted by the Habitats Directive. based on Article 17 of the Habitats Directive reporting - national
22 Conservation status is assessed using a standard methodology as summary of Cyprus being either ‘favourable’, ‘unfavourable-inadequate’ and 25 Article 12 of the Birds Directive requires Member States to report ‘unfavourable-bad’, based on four parameters as defined in Article 1 about the progress made with the implementation of the Birds of the Habitats Directive. Directive.
23 Please note that a direct comparison between 2007 and 2013 data is 26 Article 12 of the Birds Directive reporting - national summary of complicated by the fact that Bulgaria and Romania were not covered Cyprus
Cyprus 12
Extent of forest and other wooded land
Area (1000 hectares) FRA 2005 categories
1990 2000 2005 Total land area 922 924 924
Inland water bodies 1 1 1
Total area of country 925 925 925
So far Cyprus has not started working on the EU initiative on Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their
Cyprus is a biodiversity hotspot area with a mosaic of Services 29 , but has participated in 2 workshops (MESEU
biotopes, extensive natural coniferous forests and and ESMERALDA) on the creation and evaluation of expansion of phrygana 27 , traditional cultivated orchard mapping and evaluation of ecosystem services.
trees and vineyards, which constitute important habitats
for rare species. Suggested action
Pressures on biodiversity arise from urbanisation and • Complete SCI and SPA designations, especially in coastal developments, isolated and scattered offshore marine waters. Available funds from the development, tourism and recreation projects (golf Maritime and Fisheries Fund are to be used for courses, marinas), wind turbine and photovoltaic parks, covering knowledge gaps on marine waters. Complete road and electricity infrastructure in wildness areas, the SAC designation process and put in place clearly fragmentation and land use changes. Land use changes defined conservation objectives and the necessary and soil sealing have particularly high and increasing conservation measures for the sites and provide impacts. 28 Cyprus is facing a challenge since private land adequate resources for their implementation in order is very expensive and therefore there is a struggling to maintain/restore species and habitats of community procedure for managing private land in situations where interest to a favourable conservation status across nature and development are in conflict and this has led to their natural range.
slow resolution of infringements. • Build the capacity of the administration in order to improve Appropriate Assessment procedures and
The forests of Cyprus are an important national resource prevent deterioration of Natura 2000 sites from and the forest sector is subject to pressures coming damaging developments. Enhance awareness-raising mainly from development and climate change. Forests – (among authorities, stakeholders, land owners, public) private and state-owned - cover an area of 172,535 as regards Natura 2000 and its benefits. Strengthen hectares (18.65% of the total area of the island) and communication with stakeholders.
Other Wooded Land -private and state-owned - an area • Step up efforts to eliminate illegal bird trapping, in of 213,859 hectares or 23.12%, including phrygana cooperation with all parties involved. formations. • Take part and provide support to the mapping and
Extent of forest and other wooded land assessment of ecosystems and their services, evaluation and development of natural capital
Area (1000 hectares) accounting systems.
FRA 2005 categories 1990 2000 2005
Forest 161 173 174
Other wooded land - 214 214
Forest and other wooded land 161 387 388
Other land - 537 536
...of which with tree cover - - 26
27 Phrygana or garrigue is a type of low, soft-leaved scrubland ecoregion
and plant community in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. 29 Ecosystem services are benefits provided by nature such as food,
28 th 5 National Report to the CBD clean water and pollination on which human society depends.
Cyprus 13
Green Infrastructure increases fragmentation of habitats. Soil protection is
indirectly addressed in existing EU policies in areas such
The EU strategy on green infrastructure 30 promotes the as agriculture, water, waste, chemicals, and prevention of
incorporation of green infrastructure into related plans
and programmes to help overcome fragmentation of industrial pollution.
habitats and preserve or restore ecological connectivity, Artificial land cover is used for settlements, production enhance ecosystem resilience and thereby ensure the systems and infrastructure. It may itself be split between continued provision of ecosystem services. built-up areas (buildings) and non-built-up areas (such as
linear transport networks and associated areas). Green Infrastructure provides ecological, economic and
social benefits through natural solutions. It helps to The annual land take rate (growth of artificial areas) as understand the value of the benefits that nature provides provided by CORINE Land Cover was 0.58% in Cyprus over to human society and to mobilise investments to sustain the period 2006-12, above the EU average (0.41%). It and enhance them. represented 471 hectares per year and was mainly driven
Cyprus has focused on the protection of Natura 2000 by housing, services and recreation
31 .
areas for habitats and species, as well as the connectivity The soil erosion rate in 2010 was 2.89 tonnes per hectare
of the network. Landscape elements have been per year, close to EU-28 average (2.46 tonnes) 32 . Soil
incorporated in the Rural Development Plan (2014-2020) erosion is also one of the priority sectors under the for protection, conservation and rehabilitation. National Climate Change Adaptation Plan. Figure 8 shows
the different land cover types in Cyprus in 2012. Cyprus has formulated National Action Plans on Climate
Change, Desertification and Biodiversity. All three plans Figure 8: Land Cover types in Cyprus in 2012 33
include measures for the conservation and restoration of habitats' function and structure, in order to reverse biodiversity loss, adapt to climate change, combat desertification and integrate biodiversity into other sectors, policies and strategies.
Soil protection
The EU Soil Thematic Strategy highlights the need to ensure a sustainable use of soils. This requires the prevention of further soil degradation and the preservation of its functions, as well as the restoration of degraded soils. The 2011 Road Map for Resource
Efficient Europe, part of Europe 2020 Strategy provides that by 2020, EU policies take into account their direct and indirect impact on land use in the EU and globally, and the rate of land take is on track with an aim to achieve no net land take by 2050.
SDG 15 requires countries to combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land-degradation-neutral world by 2030.
Soil is an important resource for life and the economy. It
provides key ecosystem services including the provision There are still no EU-wide datasets enabling the provision of food, fibre and biomass for renewable energy, carbon of benchmark indicators for soil organic matter decline, sequestration, water purification and flood regulation, contaminated sites, pressures on soil biology and diffuse the provision of raw and building material. Soil is a finite pollution. An updated inventory and assessment of soil and extremely fragile resource and increasingly degrading protection policy instruments in Cyprus and other EU
in the EU. Land taken by urban development and infrastructure is highly unlikely to be reverted to its
natural state; it consumes mostly agricultural land and 31European Environment Agency Draft results of CORINE Land Cover (CLC) inventory 2012; mean annual land take 2006-12 as a % of 2006
artificial land.
32 Eurostat, Soil water erosion rate , Figure 2, accessed November 2016 30 European Union, Green Infrastructure — Enhancing Europe’s Natural 33 European Environment Agency, Land cover 2006 and changes country
Capital, COM/2013/0249 analysis [publication forthcoming]
Cyprus 14
Member States is being performed by the EU Expert of invasive alien species presents an important threat,
Group on Soil Protection. especially for Cyprus due to its proximity with the Suez
Canal, with the number of invasive alien species
Marine protection increasing significantly since 1970. Finally, the unique
The EU Coastal and Marine Policy and legislation require biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea Region is also threatened by pollution from land-based sources, such as
that by 2020 the impact of pressures on marine waters is
reduced to achieve or maintain good environmental discharges of excess nutrients and hazardous substances,
status and coastal zones are managed sustainably. marine litter, over-fishing and degradation of critical habitats.
SDG 14 requires countries to conserve and sustainably
use the oceans, seas and marine resources for In its implementation of the MSFD, Cyprus has set GES for
sustainable development. nearly all descriptors, but in a way that is too general. There is no systematic use of the 2010 Commission
The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) 34 aims Decision criteria and indicators when setting Good to achieve Good Environmental Status (GES) 35 of the Environmental Status, there is lack of clarity in what EU's marine waters by 2020 by providing an ecosystem constitutes Good Environmental Status and what the
approach to the management of human activities with environmental targets and associated indicators are 36 . It
impact on the marine environment. The Directive is therefore too early to conclude whether Cypriot requires Member States to develop and implement a marine waters are in a good status, as there were marine strategy for their marine waters, and cooperate weaknesses in identifying what GES is in the first place.
with Member States sharing the same marine region or
subregion. Cyprus also established a monitoring programme of its marine waters in 2014. However, it seems that its
monitoring sub-programmes for biodiversity, nonindigenous species, hydrographical changes, contaminants, marine litter and underwater noise need further refinement and development to constitute an appropriate framework for monitoring progress towards
GES 37 . Marine ecosystems and biodiversity are also
covered by the National Climate Change Adaptation Plan.
In 2012, Cypriot marine protected areas covered 131.4 square kilometres of its marine waters in the Aegean and
Levantine Sea 38 .
In its reports on the implementation of the MSFD 39 , the
Commission has provided guidance to assist Cyprus in its
As part of their marine strategies, Member States had to implementation of the MSFD.
make an initial assessment of their marine waters,
determine GES and establish environmental targets by Suggested action
July 2012. They also had to establish monitoring • Continue work to improve the definitions of GES (in programmes for the on-going assessment of their marine particular for the biodiversity descriptors), including waters by July 2014. The next element of their marine through regional cooperation by using the work of the strategy is to establish a Programme of Measures (2016). relevant Regional Sea Convention.
The Commission assesses whether these elements • Address knowledge gaps.
constitute an appropriate framework to meet the requirements of the MSFD.
The Mediterranean Sea region has been identified by the 36
EEA in its 2015 State of the Environment report as one of Commission Staff Working Document Accompanying the Commission Report on "The first phase of implementation of the Marine Strategy
the main climate change hotspots (i.e. one of the areas Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) - The European Commission's most responsive to climate change) due to water scarcity, assessment and guidance" ( SWD(2014)049 final and COM(2014)097
concentration of economic activities in coastal areas, and final ) 37
reliance on climate-sensitive agriculture. The introduction Commission Staff Working Document Accompanying the Commission Report assessing Member States' monitoring programmes under the
Marine Strategy Framework Directive (COM(2017)3 i and SWD(2017)1 final)
34 European Union, Marine Strategy Framework Directive 2008/56/EC 38 2012 Data provided by the European Environmental Agency to the
35 The MSFD defines Good Environmental Status (GES) in Article 3 as: European Commission – Not published
“The environmental status of marine waters where these provide 39 Report from the Commission "The first phase of implementation of
ecologically diverse and dynamic oceans and seas which are clean, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) - The healthy and productive” European Commission's assessment and guidance" COM(2014)097
Cyprus 15
• Further develop approaches assessing (and quantifying) impacts from the main pressures in order to lead to improved and more conclusive assessment results for 2018 reporting.
• Continue to integrate existing monitoring programmes required under other EU legislation and to implement other joint monitoring programmes, where they exist, developed at (sub)regional level, for instance by the Barcelona Convention.
• Enhance comparability and consistency of monitoring methods within its marine region.
• Urgently report and implement its programme of
measures 40 .
• Ensure that its monitoring programme is appropriate to monitor progress towards its GES.
• Ensure that the monitoring programme is implemented without delay, and is appropriate to monitor progress towards its GES.
40 As of 7.10.2016, CY had not yet reported its programme of measures to the Commission
Cyprus 16
-
3.Ensuring citizens' health and quality of life
Air quality oxides 44 increased by 1%, the total emissions are still
The EU Clean Air Policy and legislation require that air within the currently applicable ceiling.
quality in the Union is significantly improved, moving Air quality in Cyprus is reported to be generally good, closer to the WHO recommended levels. Air pollution with exceptions. Nevertheless, for the year 2013, the and its impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity should be European Environment Agency estimated that about 450 further reduced with the long-term aim of not exceeding premature deaths were attributable to fine particulate critical loads and levels. This requires strengthening matter 45 concentrations, and a further 30 to ozone 46 efforts to reach full compliance with Union air quality concentrations. 47 Figure 9 48 depicts the attainment
legislation and defining strategic targets and actions
beyond 2020. situation for PM 10 , NO 2 and ozone in 2014
49 .
For 2014, exceedances above the EU air quality standards
Figure 9: Attainment situation for PM10, NO2 and O3 in 2014
Directive (EU) 2016/2284 on the reduction of national emissions of certain atmospheric pollutants, amending Directive 2003/35/EC i and
The EU has developed a comprehensive suite of air repealing Directive 2001/81/EC i. 44
quality legislation 41 , which establishes health-based NOx is emitted during fuel combustion e.g. from industrial facilities and the road transport sector. NOx is a group of gases comprising
standards and objectives for a number of air pollutants. nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
As part of this, Member States are also required to 45 Particulate matter (PM) is a mixture of aerosol particles (solid and ensure that up-to-date information on ambient liquid) covering a wide range of sizes and chemical compositions.
concentrations of different air pollutants is routinely PM10 (PM2.5) refers to particles with a diameter of 10 (2.5) micrometres or less. PM is emitted from many anthropogenic
made available to the public. In addition, the National sources, including combustion.
Emission Ceilings Directive provides for emission 46 Low level ozone is produced by photochemical action on pollution
reductions at national level that should be achieved for and it is also a greenhouse gas. 47
main pollutants. European Environment Agency, 2016. Air Quality in Europe – 2016 Report . (Table 10.2, please see details in this report as regards the
The emission of several air pollutants has decreased in underpinning methodology) 48
Cyprus 42 . Significant emission reductions between 1990 Based on European Environment Agency, 2016. Air Quality in Europe – 2016 Report . (Figures 4.1, 5.1 and 6.1)
and 2014 for sulphur oxides (-46%), ammonia (-12%) and 49 It should be noted that the values of PM10 in Figure 9 are raw values. for volatile organic compounds (-58%) ensure that air According to article 20 of the 2008/50/EC Directive, Member States
emissions for these pollutants are within the currently shall transmit to the Commission for a given year, information on
applicable national emission ceilings 43 . Although nitrogen zones where exceedances of limit values for a given pollutant (for this case PM10) are attributable to natural sources. Cyprus used the
methodology published by the Commission (“Guidelines for demonstration and subtraction of exceedances attributable to
41 European Commission, 2016. Air Quality Standards natural sources under the Directive 2008/50/EC i on ambient air
42 See EIONET Central Data Repository and Air pollutant emissions data quality and cleaner air for Europe”) and the PM10 concentrations
viewer (NEC Directive) values are much lower. The report showing the methodology used is
43 The current national emission ceilings apply since 2010 ( Directive uploaded at CDR under the following link: 2001/81/EC ); revised ceilings for 2020 and 2030 have been set by http://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/cy/eu/aqd/g/envvdeqew/ .
Cyprus 17
have been registered regarding only the target value for Water quality and management
ozone 50 .
The EU water policy and legislation require that the
It has been estimated that the health-related external impact of pressures on transitional, coastal and fresh costs from air pollution in Cyprus are above EUR 549 waters (including surface and ground waters) is million/year (income adjusted, 2010), which include not significantly reduced to achieve, maintain or enhance only the intrinsic value of living a full, healthy life, but good status of water bodies, as defined by the Water also direct costs to the economy. These direct economic Framework Directive; that citizens throughout the Union costs relate to 213,000 workdays lost each year due to benefit from high standards for safe drinking and bathing sickness related to air pollution, with associated costs for water; and that the nutrient cycle (nitrogen and employers of EUR 17 million/year (income adjusted, phosphorus) is managed in a more sustainable and 2010) and for healthcare of above EUR 1 – 3 million/year resource-efficient way.
(income adjusted, 2010). 51
SDG 6 encourages countries to ensure availability and
Suggested action sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
• Maintain downward emissions trends of air pollutants - The main overall objective of EU water policy and and reduce adverse air pollution impacts on health, legislation is to ensure access to good quality water in environment and economy. sufficient quantity for all Europeans. The EU water acquis 54 seeks to ensure good status of all water bodies
Noise across Europe by addressing pollution sources (from e.g. agriculture, urban areas and industrial activities), physical
The Environmental Noise Directive provides for a and hydrological modifications to water bodies) and the common approach for the avoidance, prevention and management of risks of flooding. reduction of harmful effects due to exposure to River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) are a environmental noise. requirement of the Water Framework Directive and a Excessive noise is one of the main causes of health means of achieving the protection, improvement and issues 52 . To alleviate this, the EU acquis sets out several sustainable use of the water environment across Europe. requirements, including assessing the exposure to This includes surface freshwaters such as lakes and rivers, environmental noise through noise mapping, ensuring groundwater, estuaries and coastal waters up to one that information on environmental noise and its effects is nautical mile. made available to the public, and adopting action plans In its first generation of RBMPs under the WFD Cyprus with a view to preventing and reducing environmental reported the status of 216 rivers, 18 lakes, 27 coastal and noise where necessary and to preserving the acoustic 20 groundwater bodies. Only 43% of natural surface environment quality where it is good. water bodies achieve a good or high ecological status 55 Cyprus’s implementation of the Environmental Noise (while the status of 23% is unknown) and 32% of heavily Directive 53 is significantly delayed. Action plans for noise modified or artificial water bodies
56 achieve a good or
management in the current period have not been high ecological potential. 74% of surface water bodies adopted for any of the agglomerations or roads within (24% unknown), 75% of heavily modified and artificial the scope of the Directive. The Commission contacted the water bodies and 55% of groundwater bodies achieve Cypriot authorities with regard to the missing action good chemical status
57 . Only 20% of groundwater
plans, and continues to follow up on the situation. bodies
58 are in good quantitative status.
Suggested action
54
• Complete action plans for noise management. This includes the Bathing Waters Directive (2006/7/EC); the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC) concerning
discharges of municipal and some industrial waste waters; the Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) concerning potable water quality; the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) concerning
50 See The EEA/Eionet Air Quality Portal and the related Central Data water resources management; the Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC)
Repository and the Floods Directive (2007/60/EC)
51 These figures are based on the Impact Assessment for the European 55 Good ecological status is defined in the Water Framework Directive
Commission Integrated Clean Air Package (2013) referring to the quality of the biological community, the hydrological
52 WHO/JRC, 2011, Burden of disease from environmental noise, characteristics and the chemical characteristics.
Fritschi, L., Brown, A.L., Kim, R., Schwela, D., Kephalopoulos, S. (eds), 56 Many European river basins and waters have been altered by human
World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe , Copenhagen, activities, such as land drainage, flood protection, and building of Denmark dams to create reservoirs.
53 The Noise Directive requires Member States to prepare and publish, 57 Good chemical status is defined in the Water Framework Directive
every 5 years, noise maps and noise management action plans for referring to compliance with all the quality standards established for agglomerations with more than 100,000 inhabitants, and for major chemical substances at European level.
roads, railways and airports. 58 For groundwater, a precautionary approach has been taken that
Cyprus 18
The major water management problem in Cyprus is overthe health risks linked to non-compliance with indicator abstraction of groundwater. The main pressure on parameters.
Cypriot surface waters comes from diffuse sources that
affect 43% of surface water bodies. 17% of water bodies As shown in Figure 10, in 2015 in Cyprus, out of 113 are affected by point sources and 20% by flow regulation bathing waters 99.1% were of excellent quality, while it
or hydromorphological alterations. was not possible to assess the remaining 1 bathing waters. 61
Due to its semi-arid climate associated with limited water
resources, Cyprus faces significant challenges related to Figure 10: Bathing water quality 2012 – 2015
62
water scarcity. The government is investing in desalination and recycling of water to tackle the issue.
This has allowed Cyprus to minimize its dependency on rainfall of urban, suburban and tourist centres. The use of recycled water is promoted for irrigation and recharge of
aquifers 59 , which is good practice and can contribute
under some conditions.
The Cypriot RBMP has a number of deficiencies that result in uncertainties concerning the status, pressures and effectiveness of its Programmes of Measures (PoMs).
The measures planned are not expected to bring any improvement of the most pressing problems with groundwater quantitative and qualitative status, but should result in significant improvement of ecological status of surface water bodies (25% improvement) and only slight improvement (3%) in chemical status.
A series of Regulations establishing a water pricing policy The final deadline for Cyprus to reach compliance with which would cover a broad range of water services were the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive was 31 to be adopted by the end of 2015 (Action Plan agreed December 2012. The Commission has so far assessed between Cyprus and the Commission during the adoption compliance with the expired deadlines (2008, 2009, and of the Cypriot Operational Programme Competitiveness 2011) that concerned only four agglomerations of more
and Sustainable Development 2014-2020). To date, the than 15,000 population equivalent (p.e.) 63 . For those four
pricing policy has not been fully implemented, with the agglomerations in 2011, 96% of the waste water load is adoption of new tariffs pending. connected to a collecting system and 3.8 % addressed by
There are some issues with nitrate levels from an individual or appropriate system. Thus, 99.8% of the agricultural sources, with around 25% of the reported load is deemed compliant in accordance with Article 3 of monitoring sites being affected (nitrates concentrations the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive. However, above 25mg/l) by pollution in the reporting period 2008- only 59.8% is correctly treated as regards the secondary 2011 and an increase in the application rates of livestock treatment requirement. This is mainly due to lack of
manure. performance information about the Mia Milia wastewater treatment plant that is in the north part of
Only part of the territory under government control Cyprus. However, all the monitoring data from this plant
(around 7.5%) is identified as a nitrate vulnerable zone have been provided for the year 2014 with the
and therefore subject to obligatory measures of pollution submission of the 9 th Art. 15 reporting exercise. All of the
control. waste water subject to more stringent treatment is
As regards drinking water, Cyprus reaches very high correctly treated in accordance with Article 5 of the compliance rates of 99-100% for microbiological and Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive
64 . Cyprus
chemical parameters, and shows a 96.3% compliance
rate with indicator parameters laid down in the Drinking chemical and indicator parameters that are assessed can be found in Annex I, part A, B and C of Directive 98/83/EC i
Water Directive. 60 It is up to Member States to decide on 61 European Environment Agency, 2016. European bathing water quality
62
European Environment Agency, State of bathing water , 2016
comprises a prohibition on direct discharges to groundwater and a 63 This is because under the past reporting exercises, Cyprus did not
requirement to monitor groundwater bodies. communicate 2012 data, but only data from 2011; compliance with
59 EUROPE 2020, Cyprus National Reform Programme 2016 the final deadline of 31.12.2012 could therefore not be assessed. It is
60 Commission's Synthesis Report on the Quality of Drinking Water in expected that compliance with this final deadline will be assessed the Union examining Member States' reports for the 2011-2013 with data reported under the next (9 th ) reporting exercise, which
period, foreseen under Article 13(5) of Directive 98/83/EC i; should concern year 2014.
COM(2016)666 i Note: 2011-2013 data. The list of microbiological, 64 Eighth Report on the Implementation Status and the Programmes for
Cyprus 19
belongs to a pilot project which aims to improve • Establish a water pricing policy covering a broad range
dissemination of data 65 . of water services and based on metering that would
Figure 11: Urban waste water Cypriot situation 2011 – include tariffs reflecting environmental and resource
Final deadline 2012 66 costs and provide incentives for more efficient use of water.
• Enforce the laws concerning the groundwater use to control self-abstraction. Water permits should be consistent with environmental objectives. Water from desalination should not be destined for agricultural use.
• Monitor the development of agricultural pressure and the consequent water quality changes, with a view to reviewing and if necessary revising the nitrate vulnerable zones and the implementation and control of the Action Programme measures.
• Ensure that all the waste water collected is treated in accordance with the secondary treatment requirements.
Enhancing the sustainability of cities
The EU Policy on the urban environment encourages cities to implement policies for sustainable urban planning and design, including innovative approaches for
Figure 11 shows the total generated load at Member urban public transport and mobility, sustainable
State level (in population equivalent and regardless of buildings, energy efficiency and urban biodiversity agglomerations) and the load that remains to be conservation.
addressed by Cyprus. SDG11 aims at making cities and human settlements
The estimated investment needs (reported by Cyprus inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.
under Article 17 of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Europe is a Union of cities and towns; around 75% of the
Directive) to reach full compliance with the Directive are EU population are living in urban areas. 69 The urban
of EUR 826 million 67 . environment poses particular challenges for the
Suggested action 68 environment and human health, whilst also providing opportunities and efficiency gains in the use of resources.
• Improve water policy in line with the intervention logic
of the Water Framework Directive, i.e. do a more The Member States, European institutions, cities and detailed assessment of pressures to improve stakeholders have prepared a new Urban Agenda for the monitoring to know the status of water bodies and EU (incorporating the Smart Cities initiative) to tackle design PoMs that address all the main pressures these issues in a comprehensive way, including their identified, in particular from agriculture. connections with social and economic challenges. At the
• Promote water efficiency and sustainable water heart of this Urban Agenda will be the development of retention including natural water retention measures twelve partnerships on the identified urban challenges, in the PoM and ensure adequate funding. including air quality and housing
70 .
The European Commission will launch a new EU
benchmark system in 2017 71 .
Implementation (as required by Article 17) of Council Directive
91/271/EEC concerning urban waste water treatment (COM The EU stimulates green cities through awards and
(2016)105 final) and Commission Staff Working Document funding, such as the EU Green Capital Award aimed at
accompanying the report (SWD(2016)45 final). cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants and the EU
65 See http://uwwtd.oieau.fr/cyprus/
66 European Commission, 2016 . Urban waste water, 8th implementation Green Leaf initiative aimed at cities and towns, with
67 Eighth Report on the Implementation Status and the Programmes for 69 European Environment Agency, Urban environment
Implementation (as required by Article 17) of Council Directive 70 http://urbanagendaforthe.eu/ 91/271/EEC concerning urban waste water treatment (COM 71 The Commission is developing an Urban Benchmarking and (2016)105 final) and Commission Staff Working Document Monitoring ('UBaM') tool to be launched in 2017. Best practices accompanying the report (SWD(2016)45 final emerge and these will be better disseminated via the app featuring
68 For the full set of recommendations relating to the Water Framework the UBaM tool, and increasingly via e.g. EUROCITIES, ICLEI, CEMR,
Directive please see here. Committee of the Regions, Covenant of Mayors and others.
Cyprus 20
between 20,000 and 100,000 inhabitants.
International agreements
The EU Treaties require that the Union policy on the environment promotes measures at the international level to deal with regional or worldwide environmental problems.
Most environmental problems have a transboundary nature and often a global scope and they can only be addressed effectively through international co-operation.
International environmental agreements concluded by the Union are binding upon the institutions of the Union and on its Member States. This requires the EU and the
Member States to sign, ratify and effectively implement all relevant multilateral environmental agreements
(MEAs) in a timely manner. This will also be an important contribution towards the achievement of the SDGs, which Member States committed to in 2015 and include many commitments contained already in legally binding agreements.
The fact that some Member States did not sign and/or ratify a number of MEAs compromises environmental implementation, including within the Union, as well as the Union’s credibility in related negotiations and international meetings where supporting the participation of third countries to such agreements is an established EU policy objective. In agreements where voting takes place it has a direct impact on the number of votes to be cast by the EU.
Currently, Cyprus has signed, but not yet ratified, the Kiev
Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers, the
Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment to the
Espoo Convention and the Nagoya Protocol 72 . It has
neither signed nor ratified the Protocol on Integrated
Coastal Zone Management and the Helsinki Convention on Watercourses and Lakes.
72 Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Cyprus 21
Part II: Enabling Framework: Implementation Tools
-
4.Market based instruments and investment
Green taxation and environmentally harmful aggregates tax and landfill tax. subsidies Figure 12: Environmental tax revenues as a share of
The Circular Economy Action Plan encourages the use of total revenues from taxes and social contributions financial incentives and economic instruments, such as (excluding imputed social contributions) in 2014
76
taxation to ensure that product prices better reflect environmental costs. The phasing out of environmentally harmful subsidies is monitored in the context of the
European Semester and in national reform programmes submitted by Member States.
Taxing pollution and resource use can generate increased revenue and bring important social and environmental benefits.
Revenues from environment-related taxes amounted to
3.08% of GDP in 2014 in Cyprus (up from 2.73 in 2013), above the EU average of 2.46%. Energy taxes accounted for the greatest proportion of environmental taxes in
2013, amounting to 2.37% of Cyprus’ GDP. Revenues from transport (excluding fuel) taxes amounted to 0.71% of GDP. According to Eurostat, Cyprus does not generate any revenue from taxation placed on pollution and
resources 73 . In the same year environmental tax
revenues accounted for 9.01% of total revenues from taxes and social-security contributions (EU 28 average:
6.35%) as shown in Figure 12.
A 2016 study suggests that there is considerable potential for shifting taxes from labour to environmental
taxes 74 . Under a good practice scenario 75 the amount
could be as high as EUR 0.17 billion in 2018, rising to EUR
0.23 billion in 2030 (both in real 2015 terms). This is equivalent to an additional 0.95% and 1.09% of GDP in
2018 and 2030, respectively. The largest potential contribution to revenue would come from the suggested
passenger aviation tax. In the absence of resource and Green Public Procurement
pollution taxes, Cyprus could reconsider implementation
of resource taxes, such as water abstraction tax, The EU green public procurement policies encourage Member States to take further steps to reach the target
of applying green procurement criteria to at least 50% of 73 Eurostat, Environmental tax revenues , assessed June 2016 public tenders.
74 Eunomia Research and Consulting, IEEP, Aarhus University, ENT,
2016. Study on Assessing the Environmental Fiscal Reform Potential
for the EU28. N.B. National governments are responsible for setting Green Public Procurement (GPP) is a process whereby
tax rates within the EU Single Market rules and this report is not public authorities seek to procure goods, services and
suggesting concrete changes as to the level of environmental works with a reduced environmental impact throughout
taxation. It merely presents the findings of the 2016 study by
Eunomia et al on the potential benefits various environmental taxes their life-cycle when compared to goods, services and
could bring. It is then for the national authorities to assess this study works with the same primary function that would
and their concrete impacts in the national context. A first step in this otherwise be procured.
respect, already done by a number of Member States, is to set up
expert groups to assess these and make specific proposals. The purchasing power of public procurement equals to
75 The good practice scenario means benchmarking to a successful taxation practice in another Member State.
76
Eurostat, Environmental tax revenues , accessed October 2016
Cyprus 22
approximately 14% of GDP 77 . A substantial part of this environmental goals and integrate these into other policy
money is spent on sectors with high environmental areas. Other instruments such as the Horizon 2020, the impact such as construction or transport, so GPP can help LIFE programme and European Fund for Strategic
to significantly lower the impact of public spending and Investment 83 (EFSI) may also support implementation
foster sustainable innovative businesses. The and spread off best practice.
Commission has proposed EU GPP criteria 78 . With regard to EFSI there are a number of projects under
The second National Action Plan (NAP) for GPP was consultation with EIB concerning Renewable Energy. adopted by the Council of Ministers on 31 January 2012.
EU GPP criteria are recommended for the following For the 2014-2020 programming period Cyprus has product groups: office equipment, paper, electricity, adopted four Operational Programmes (OPs): one for the cleaning products and services, sanitary ware, European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development construction (building and road), food products and (EAFRD), one for the European Maritime and Fisheries services, furniture, textiles, transport, gardening products Fund (EMFF), one for the European Social Fund (ESF) and
and services. one for the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the Cohesion Fund (CF).
All public procurers have to adopt at least the core
criteria from the GPP NAP (includes the EU GOO Toolkit The total EU allocation of ESIF for Cyprus will be EUR 874 criteria and national criteria for some categories for million (see figure 13), which is an increase compared to which there are no EU criteria), with a target of at least the 2007-2013 programming period, when the EU 50% 79 . allocated funds amounted to EUR 612 million.
In a 2010 study, the share of Cypriot authorities that Figure 13: European Structural and Investment Funds included GPP requirements in between 50% and 100% of 2014-2020: Budget Cyprus by theme, EUR billion
84
their contracts was estimated between 10 and 20% 80 .
According to the latest survey Cypriot authorities used green criteria in more than 50% of the cases in selected categories (e.g. 70%-100% for IT equipment, recycled kitchen paper, stationery, etc.), which is slightly more
than the EU average 81 , although data are not available
for all categories.
Investments: the contribution of EU funds
European Structural and Investment Funds Regulations provide that Member States promote environment and climate objectives in their funding strategies and programmes for economic, social and territorial cohesion, rural development and maritime policy, and reinforce the capacity of implementing bodies to deliver cost-effective and sustainable investments in these areas.
Making good use of the European Structural and
Investment Funds (ESIF) 82 is essential to achieve the
77 European Commission, 2015. Public Procurement
78 In the Communication “Public procurement for a better environment”
(COM /2008/400) the Commission recommended the creation of a
process for setting common GPP criteria. The basic concept of GPP The biggest share – EUR 292.1 million (33.4%) of funding
relies on having clear, verifiable, justifiable and ambitious is coming from the European Fund for Regional environmental criteria for products and services, based on a life-cycle Development (ERDF).
approach and scientific evidence base.
79 European Commission, 2015. Documentation on National GPP Action EUR 269.5 million (30.8%) - from the Cohesion Fund (CF).
80 Adelphi et al., 2011. Strategic Use of Public Procurement in Europe EUR 132.2 million (15.1%) – from the European
81 CEPS, 2012. Monitoring the Uptake of GPP in the EU Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD).
82 ESIF comprises five funds – the European Regional Development
Funds (ERDF), the Cohesion Fund (CF), the European Social Fund
(ESF), the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development 83 EIB: European Fund for Strategic Investments (EAFRD), and the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFF). The 84 European Commission, European Structural and Investment Funds ERDF, the CF and the ESF together form the Cohesion Policy funds. Data By Country
Cyprus 23
EUR 128.9 million (14.8%) - from the European Social
Fund (ESF).
EUR 39.7 million (4.5%) from the European Maritime and
Fisheries Fund (EMFF).
In total, EUR 217.3 million is dedicated to Thematic
Objective (TO) 6 Environment Protection and Resource efficiency, EUR 127 million through the CF, EUR 36.9 million through the EAFRD programme, EUR 30 m through the ERDF programme and EUR 23.4 million through the EMFF. In addition, EUR 51 million is foreseen for TO4 Low Carbon Economy (ERDF, CF, EMFF and
EAFRD) and EUR 39.4 million for TO5 Climate Change
Adoption and Risk Prevention (EAFRD and CF). It is too early to draw conclusions as regards the use and results of ESIF for the period 2014-2020, as the relevant programmes are still in an early stage of their implementation.
Current data suggest that the EU funds for the 2007-2013 period were almost fully spent.
Cyprus 24
-
5.Effective governance and knowledge
SDG 16 aims at providing access to justice and building effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all
levels. SDG 17 aims at better implementation, improving Capacity to implement rules
policy coordination and policy coherence, stimulating It is crucial that central, regional and local science, technology and innovation, establishing administrations have the necessary capacities, skills and partnerships and developing measurements of progress. training to carry out their own tasks and to co-operate
Effective governance of EU environmental legislation and and co-ordinate effectively with each other, within a policies requires having an appropriate institutional system of multi-level governance.
framework, policy coherence and coordination, applying Alignment of legislation in Cyprus was closely followed legal and non-legal instruments, engaging with nonthroughout pre-accession period. No significant gaps governmental stakeholders, and having adequate levels have arisen and the process of putting in place the EU
of knowledge and skills 85 . Successful implementation acquis led to the strengthening of environmental policies
depends, to a large extent, on central, regional and local and legislation. So far, the Cypriot authorities comply government fulfilling key legislative and administrative with the deadlines imposed by the EU environmental tasks, notably adoption of sound implementing legislation and react quickly and efficiently, whenever the legislation, co-ordinated action to meet environmental Commission initiates an infringement procedure. A objectives and correct decision-making on matters such notable exception is in the nature sector, where some as industrial permits. Beyond fulfilment of these tasks, delays are observed (i.e. designation of Special Protected government must intervene to ensure day-to-day Areas and proposal of Sites of Community Interest).
compliance by economic operators, utilities and individuals ("compliance assurance"). Civil society also has a role to play, including through legal action. To underpin the roles of all actors, it is crucial to collect and share knowledge and evidence on the state of the environment and on environmental pressures, drivers and impacts.
Equally, effective governance of EU environmental legislation and policies benefits from a dialogue within
Member States and between Member States and the
Commission on whether the current EU environmental legislation is fit for purpose. Legislation can only be properly implemented when it takes into account experiences at Member State level with putting EU The number of infringement cases against Cyprus is commitments into effect. The Make it Work initiative, a moderate (8 infringement cases, of which 7 at 258 stage Member State driven project, established in 2014, and 1 at 260 stage). In general, there are no significant organizes a discussion on how the clarity, coherence and problems regarding the quality of the transposition of the structure of EU environmental legislation can be EC Directives. Currently no case is open. Most cases improved, without lowering existing protection relate either to bad application of the EU environmental standards. legislation or late transposition.
Effective governance within central, regional According to a Report of the World Bank 86 , strategic
and local government planning (including in cases of cross-cutting issues) and environmental policy integration are, generally, weak and
Those involved in implementing environment legislation could be improved. at Union, national, regional and local levels need to be
equipped with the knowledge, tools and capacity to The transposition of the revised EIA Directive
87 will be an
improve the delivery of benefits from that legislation, opportunity to streamline the regulatory framework on and the governance of the enforcement process. environmental assessments. The Commission encourages
86
Analysis of the Function and Structure of the Ministry of Agriculture,
85 The Commission has work ongoing to improve the country-specific Natural Resources and Environment (MANRE) of the Republic of
knowledge about quality and functioning of the administrative Cyprus, Document of the World Bank, May 2014.
systems of Member States. 87 The transposition of Directive 2014/52 i/EU is due in May 2017
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the streamlining of the environmental assessments to can be done both on the initiative of authorities avoid overlaps in environmental assessments and themselves and in response to citizen complaints. It can accelerate decision-making, without compromising the involve using various kinds of checks, including quality of the environmental assessment procedure. The inspections for permitted activities, surveillance for
Commission has issued a guidance document in 2016 88 possible illegal activities, investigations for crimes and
regarding the setting up of coordinated and/or joint audits for systemic weaknesses. Similarly, there is a range procedures that are simultaneously subject to of means to promote compliance, including awarenessassessments under the EIA Directive, Habitats Directive, raising campaigns and use of guidance documents and Water Framework Directive, and the Industrial Emissions online information tools. Follow-up to breaches and Directive. liabilities can include administrative action (e.g.
Coordination and integration withdrawal of a permit), use of criminal law
90 and action
under liability law (e.g. required remediation after Cyprus adopted a National Sustainable Development damage from an accident using liability rules) and Strategy in 2007, which was revised in 2010. The current contractual law (e.g. measures to require compliance Strategy is mainly a compilation of the actions taken with nature conservation contracts). Taken together, all separately by various Ministries, rather than being a of these interventions represent "compliance assurance" strategic document formulated under a structured, as shown in Figure 14. participatory process, guiding and integrating policies.
The governance aspects are not dealt with. There is no Best practice has moved towards a risk-based approach formal inter-ministerial coordination mechanism or at strategic and operational levels in which the best mix entity to ensure that the (sometimes conflicting) of compliance monitoring, promotion and enforcement is objectives are properly balanced between different directed at the most serious problems. Best practice also Ministries. Overall, the system is currently characterized recognises the need for coordination and cooperation
by a high degree of fragmentation. between different authorities to ensure consistency, avoid duplication of work and reduce administrative
Environmental management is characterized by a high burden. Active participation in established pan-European level of concentration at the civil service and the central networks of inspectors, police, prosecutors and judges,
government level. This, in conjunction with the small size such as IMPEL 91 , EUFJE 92 , ENPE 93 and EnviCrimeNet 94 , is a
of the country and the simple organizational structure in valuable tool for sharing experience and good practices.
two levels of government (central and local) presents
opportunities to effectively address the gaps that exist. Figure 14: Environmental compliance assurance
The role of local authorities is rather limited, with most decisions relating to the environment taken by government agencies. At this stage, the local environmental capacity (empowerment, personnel, know-how, financial resources) to undertake and exercise broad environmental responsibilities is not
sufficient 89 .
Compliance assurance
EU law generally and specific provisions on inspections, other checks, penalties and environmental liability help lay the basis for the systems Member States need to have in place to secure compliance with EU environmental rules.
Public authorities help ensure accountability of duty Currently, there exist a number of sectoral obligations on holders by monitoring and promoting compliance and by inspections and the EU directive on environmental taking credible follow-up action (i.e. enforcement) when liability (ELD)
95
provides a means of ensuring that the
breaches occur or liabilities arise. Compliance monitoring "polluter-pays principle" is applied when there are accidents and incidents that harm the environment.
88 European Commission, 2016. Commission notice — Commission guidance document on streamlining environmental assessments 90 European Union, Environmental Crime Directive 2008/99/EC conducted under Article 2(3) of the Environmental Impact 91 European Union Network for the Implementation and Enforcement of
Assessment Directive (Directive 2011/92 i/EU of the European Environmental Law
Parliament and of the Council, as amended by Directive 2014/52 i/EU). 92 European Union Forum of judges for the environment
89 Analysis of the Function and Structure of the Ministry of Agriculture, 93 The European Network of Prosecutors for the Environment
Natural Resources and Environment (MANRE) of the Republic of 94 EnviCrimeNet Cyprus, Document of the World Bank, May 2014. 95 European Union, Environmental Liability Directive 2004/35/CE
Cyprus 26
There is also publically available information giving prosecuted and sentenced for environmental insights into existing strengths and weaknesses in each offences.
Member State.
For each Member State, the following were therefore Cyprus participates in the activities of IMPEL, but is not reviewed: use of risk-based compliance assurance; very active in relation to the work of the other European coordination and co-operation between authorities and networks of environmental professionals.
participation in pan-European networks; and key aspects For the period 2007-2013, Cyprus reported one incident of implementation of the ELD based on the Commission's of environmental damage falling within the scope of the recently published implementation report and REFIT Environmental Liability Directive (ELD). Due to limited
evaluation. 96 resources and expertise, Cyprus finds it difficult to deal
Over the last decade, Cyprus has made efforts to improve with the technical requirements of the Directive and is in risk-based compliance assurance, in particular in relation need of further guidance and training. It did not establish to industrial inspections. The IMPEL IRAM risk mandatory financial security (to pay for remediation assessment tool is used for planning and targeting where an operator cannot) and insurance cover appears
inspections of industrial installations 97 . to be insufficiently available for liabilities under the Directive.
Up-to-date information would be valuable in relation to
the following: Suggested action
• Encourage greater participation of competent
− data-collection arrangements to track the use and authorities in the activities of ENPE, EUFJE and effectiveness of different compliance assurance EnviCrimeNet. interventions; • Step up efforts in the implementation of the − the extent to which risk-based methods are used to Environmental Liability Directive (ELD) with proactive
direct compliance assurance at the strategic level initiatives, in particular by setting up a national register and in relation to critical activities outside of of ELD incidents and drafting national guidance. industrial installations, especially specific problem Moreover, take further steps to ensure an effective areas highlighted elsewhere in this Country Report, system of financial security for environmental liabilities i.e. non-compliant waste disposal, the threats to (so that operators not only have insurance cover protected habitat types and species, including illegal available to them but actually take it up).
trapping of wild birds, over-abstraction of
groundwater 98 and the pressures on water quality Public participation and access to justice
from diffuse and point sources of pollution;
− arrangements for structured coordination and The Aarhus Convention, related EU legislation on public cooperation between different relevant competent participation and environmental impact assessment, and authorities; the case-law of the Court of Justice require that citizens − how the Cypriot authorities ensure a targeted and and their associations should be able to participate in
proportionate response to different types of nondecision-making on projects and plans and should enjoy compliant behaviour, in particular in relation to effective environmental access to justice.
serious breaches detected, given indications that Citizens can more effectively protect the environment if
there is a low probability of being criminally they can rely on the three "pillars" of the Convention on
Access to Information, Public Participation in Decisionmaking and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters
96 COM(2016) 204 final i and COM(2016) 121 final of 14.4.2016. This ("the Aarhus Convention"). Public participation in the highlighted the need for better evidence on how the directive is used administrative decision making process is an important
in practice; for tools to support its implementation, such as guidance,
training and ELD registers; and for financial security to be available in element to ensure that the authority takes its decision on
case events or incidents generate remediation costs. the best possible basis. The Commission intends to
97 Study on 'Assessment and summary of the Member States' examine compliance with mandatory public participation implementation reports for the IED, IPPCD, SED and WID. Industrial requirements more systematically at a later stage.
Emissions Directive', 2016, Amec Foster Wheeler Environment &
Infrastructure UK Ltd in collaboration with Milieu Ltd, p. 163f. Access to justice in environmental matters is a set of
98 Some good practices have been identified in Cyprus in relation to guarantees that allows citizens and their associations to
water inspection, such as its enforcement programme on agricultural
abstractions using satellite photography and on-site inspections, see challenge acts or omissions of the public administration
Comparative study of pressures and measures in the major River before a court. It is a tool for decentralised
Basin Management Plans, section Governance, 2012, p. 32, 133: implementation of EU environmental law.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/water/implrep2007/pdf/
Governance-Pressures%20and%20measures.pdf For each Member State, two crucial elements for
Cyprus 27
effective access to justice have been systematically electronic data-sharing between public authorities who reviewed: the legal standing for the public, including can vary in their data-sharing policies, e.g. on whether NGOs and the extent to which prohibitive costs represent access to data is for free.. The INSPIRE Directive sets up a a barrier. geoportal which indicates the level of shared spatial data
The rules on access to justice in environmental matters in in each Member State – i.e. data related to specific
Cyprus are considered as clear. However, the cost risks locations, such as air quality monitoring data. Amongst related to bringing cases to court in Cyprus prevents not other benefits it facilitates the public authorities' only individuals but also NGOs from taking cases to the reporting obligations.
court. Another difficulty faced by potential litigants is the For each Member State, the accessibility of lack of timely procedures, which additionally increases environmental data (based on what the INSPIRE Directive the costs. NGOs have in principle legal standing, but case envisages) as well as data-sharing policies ('open data') law of the Supreme Court introduced restrictions which have been systematically reviewed. might contravene the objective of granting a wide access
to justice in the context of the Aarhus Convention (e.g. Cyprus's performance on the implementation of the
the requirement of a geographical proximity) 99 . INSPIRE Directive as enabling framework to actively disseminate environmental information to the public is
Suggested action lagging behind. Cyprus has indicated in the 3-yearly
• Take the necessary measures to ensure that the costs INSPIRE implementation report
104 that the necessary
of legal challenges involving EU environmental law are data-sharing policies allowing access and use of spatial not prohibitively expensive, and in line with the data by national administrations, other Member States' requirements of EU law as well as the Aarhus administrations and EU institutions without procedural
Convention. obstacles are partially available and implemented. During the last year, emphasis has been placed on opening up
public data, through the recent adoption of Directive
Access to information, knowledge and 2003/98/EC on the re-use of public sector information.
evidence For this purpose, the Cyprus government has launched the open data website www.data.gov.cy, where most
The Aarhus Convention and related EU legislation on data published under the INSPIRE Directive are publicly access to information and the sharing of spatial data available and free of charge. Through this platform public require that the public has access to clear information on authorities publish information and data they possess or the environment, including on how Union environmental have generated in all fields, including statistics, maps, law is being implemented. geoscientific data and meteorological information.
It is of crucial importance to public authorities, the public Sections on Environment, Agriculture/ Livestock/ and business that environmental information is shared in Fisheries as well as on Geospatial data have been created an efficient and effective way. This covers reporting by and efforts are now concentrated on data quality control businesses and public authorities and active and on increasing data availability. Cyprus only mentions dissemination to the public, increasingly through data-sharing licenses in use by the Department of Lands electronic means. and Surveys.
The Aarhus Convention 100 , the Access to Environmental Assessments of monitoring reports
105 issued by Cyprus
Information Directive 101 and the INSPIRE Directive 102 and the spatial information that Cyprus has published on together create a legal foundation for the sharing of the INSPIRE geoportal
106 indicate that not all spatial
environmental information between public authorities information needed for the evaluation and and with the public. They also represent the green part of implementation of EU environmental law has been made the ongoing EU e-Government Action Plan 103 . The first available or is accessible. The larger part of this missing two instruments create obligations to provide spatial information consists of the environmental data information to the public, both on request and actively. required to be made available under the existing
The INSPIRE Directive is a pioneering instrument for reporting and monitoring regulations of EU environmental law.
99 See study on access to justice in environmental matters 2012/2013 Suggested action
100 UNECE, 1998. Convention on Access to Information, Public
Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in • Critically review the effectiveness of data policies and
101 amend them, taking 'best practices' into consideration. European Union, Directive 2003/4/EC on public access to
102 European Union, INSPIRE Directive 2007/2/EC
103 European Union, EU eGovernment Action Plan 2016-2020 - 104 European Commission, INSPIRE reports
Accelerating the digital transformation of government COM(2016) 105 Inspire indicator trends 179 final 106 Inspire Resources Summary Report
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• Identify and document all spatial data sets required for the implementation of environmental law, and make the data and documentation at least accessible 'as is' to other public authorities and the public through the digital services foreseen in the INSPIRE Directive.